Secrets de Marketeurs

What is the Ostrich effect?

It’s a type of cognitive bias where people choose to ignore an obvious and significant danger instead of dealing with it. It is named after the Ostrich which supposedly buries its head in the ground when faced with a dangerous situation, believing that if it can’t see the predator, then the predator can’t see it. It has also been called burying your head in the sand.

Why this bias is dangerous?               

Ignoring problems as if they do not exist does not make them go away; instead, problems are more likely to escalate over time as you become increasingly unaware of them. This means that if you ignore even relatively small problems having to do with relationships or work, those problems will snowball into much bigger ones and may become unmanageable.

Why do people use this bias?               

People who suffer from depression often exhibit the Ostrich effect, preferring to ignore their problems instead of confronting them head-on. People with anxiety disorders are also more likely to exhibit the Ostrich effect by trying to avoid stressful or uncomfortable thoughts rather than working through them. The Ostrich effect can manifest in a variety of other ways as well: some people try to bury themselves in work when they’re going through a divorce while others simply refuse to think about it at all. Some people will pay only cursory attention to an issue that’s plaguing them before turning away from it completely, while others will hyperfocus on one small part of a larger challenge and ignore the rest of it.

How do people use this bias?                  

A classic example of ostrich effect is an overweight man who chooses not to get exercise by saying he doesn’t have enough time. He then chooses to eat a lot of junk food that is high in calories and fat which only makes him even less active, reinforcing the cycle.

People may engage in self-deception as a coping mechanism when reality becomes too difficult or distressing to bear. They may ignore problems, hoping they will go away on their own – but they rarely do. It’s easier for people who have experienced traumatic events to try not think about them at all than it is for them to come to terms with those events and their aftermath. People sometimes mistakenly believe that by avoiding thinking about something they can also avoid dealing with it or taking action, which isn’t always true.

How can we create this bias?                       

The simplest way to create this bias is by detaching yourself from your emotions when you are faced with a problem. People do this in order to feel in control and mask problems without truly solving them and understanding what they’re truly dealing with. This allows them to continue taking the easy route, which usually involves ignoring their problems instead of addressing them head on.

How to avoid this bias?               

If you come across situations where you notice the Ostrich effect in yourself or others, try to become more aware of their thoughts and actions. How are they avoiding thinking about the issues at hand? What thoughts are holding them back from taking action on important personal or professional problems? Be mindful of what’s going on around you by actively listening and observing rather than impulsively reacting. If you find yourself engaging in the Ostrich effect, you should work to remove those filters from your mind and become more objective.

Ostrich Effect Examples:

Whenever there is a problem that seems too big to handle someone may resort to burying their head in the sand. This can be seen on an individual level or at a global level. You see it when people are trying to ignore climate change because they feel like whatever they do won’t make a difference. But if everyone were to try and make a difference while ignoring whether it would truly make one, then there could actually be some positive change made.

Which profession use the bias?               

The Ostrich effect is common among people who are depressed or have low self-esteem because they don’t want to face their problems head on. It can also occur in people who suffer from anxiety disorders because they are overwhelmed at the thought of having even more responsibilities added to their lives.

Conclusion.               

There are many reasons why someone might engage in the Ostrich effect, but it all comes down to an attempt to avoid negative emotions or circumstances that can be difficult for them to confront. The problem with this coping strategy is that not dealing with these issues doesn’t make them go away—they’ll still be waiting when you choose to take them on. By knowing how and why this bias occurs, you can work toward overcoming it by becoming more mindful of your thoughts and actions while finding other ways to deal with stress and anxiety.                                           

What is the Exception bias?

The exception bias is a cognitive bias that causes people to believe that an individual will always display the traits of their specific group. For example, if you have just met a Muslim man who seems nice and kind person, you might then generalise this assumption to all Muslims.

Why does it work?

The exception bias works because when someone has experienced positive interactions with one member of a group they are likely to feel more positively about the rest of the members in that group. If someone has had negative experiences with members from another group however, this can result in them having more negative expectations about the rest of the individuals in this other group.

Examples of the Exception bias?

Every profession has their own way of seeing events. When you are doing the same thing every day, it becomes too easy to miss details. A perfect example that can be used is managers or supervisors who see employees who work for them.

The rules are simple: they reward those who work more than others but not those who does things better than everyone else. This makes sense because it would not be fair if someone was working less than others and he/she is getting paid extra. That’s why companies have managers, so they can decide what employees deserve a bonus or raise in salary based on the highest standards of their profession regardless of how many hours they worked this month.

Except that unconsciously, these managers tend to forget some exceptions which always present themselves. Maybe they work harder than others for some reason but they do not get the reward that everyone else gets because someone made a mistake and forgot to add their name in the list of people who should be rewarded. Or maybe they got sick so they missed two days of work, which is something normal and expected even though it’s against company policy. But if an employee has been working there for six months and he/she calls in late only twice, managers will think: « Oh, this person did not call in once since we started working together. »

Same thing with bonuses; They require employees to meet certain goals such as reaching a specific quota or completing a project on time. If an employee meets all requirements except that he/she did not meet the quota, managers will forget that specific goal and they might reward someone who did not complete all projects on time.

Why is this bias dangerous?

The Exception bias is dangerous because it makes people think that something is more common than what really happens. It’s the same thing with the false memory bias which makes people remember some events as more frequent or important than they were in real life. The only reason why these biases are dangerous is because they make things more simplified for us, making it seem like everything can be explained with a simple answer instead of taking into consideration different factors affecting how reality works. For example, if you’re following news reports about world politics for years, you will see that every year there happens to be wars in different places. But if you look at the history of these countries, wars have been occurring since ancient times and lasted for decades or centuries.

The danger comes from the fact that we take these events as something normal without realizing how unpredictable they can be sometimes. No one knows when a war starts, who will be involved in it and why. We only know something about the causes because people tend to think that there’s always a cause whenever an event occurs, even though there are some cases where things happen but no one knows why they happened or what caused them to start happening.

These biases make us believe that some facts are more important than others just because we remember them easier than facts that do not seem as relevant or important for some reason. If we keep doing this, we will never know what’s really happening in the world.

Why do people use this bias?

People may be using the exception bias without even realizing that they’re doing it. When you see someone working harder than others and you know there was a mistake made when it came to rewarding hours, common sense tells us that person deserves extra money since they worked their ass off for no reason. But managers who notice these mistakes but still reward those who did not work as hard as others are not applying any sort of common sense which is why they need time to think things through before making any decision about giving bonuses or raises in salary.

How do people use this bias?

When our favorite football team or baseball team loses a game, people tend to think that the players do not play as good as they usually do. But what most people forget is that sometimes things which are out of anyone’s control can affect how you play. For example, your favorite radio station might have played some great songs before the game started but it went off air half an hour ago so now there’s nothing playing on it except for ads which you enjoy less than listening to high-quality sports commentary which only comes on during halftime or post-game.

How can we create this bias?

You can easily create the exception bias by telling someone that something happens more often than not and then wait for them to mention examples of times when something different happened. Once they mention those exceptions, use the hasty generalization fallacy by saying something like « but that’s not normal » or any other phrase which helps you justify why those exceptions are irrelevant.

How to avoid this bias?

The best way of avoiding biases is by noticing when people are trying to create an illusion about how things really work in life. If someone tells you that there are too many people doing drugs, wait for them to mention some statistics or scientific studies before telling them they’re wrong because you know most of those reports are biased and manipulated so they do not tell you much about what’s really happening out there. The easiest way of avoiding this bias is realizing that it exists and then making a conscious effort every time you see it being used on your favorite social media sites like YouTube, Instagram or Facebook.

Which profession use the bias?

This bias affects everyone so there isn’t really a specific group who uses this bias more than others do. However, it is worth noting that there is a very high chance that you will fall into this trap if you use stereotypes when trying to judge someone or something.

Conclusion.

There are many cognitive biases out there but the most dangerous ones are those which make us think that things happen for no reason whatsoever. If you use these types of bias, you need to know what’s really happening in the world instead of looking at one side of it and thinking this is how life works. If people realized that most events tend to be unplanned or unpredictable, they would not give into this type of bias as easily as they do now.

What is the Observer effect?

The observer effect or « Heisenberg Principle » is a cognitive bias where people will change their behavior, just by the knowledge that they are being observed. For example, you can induce false memories in others just by suggesting them first .

Why does this happen?

When you know you are being watched (or even think of it) your brain starts to behave differently. You act differently, which causes new actions and reactions of other people who are subconsciously aware of the fact that something changed inside you. The Observer effect becomes effective because we feel like somebody is watching us. Maybe it’s because our parents used to watch us as kids every time we lied yeah? Or maybe more importantly; somebody might find out what we don’t want them to know. This might cause a dangerous situation, which is why people hide from the knowledge of others.

Why is this bias dangerous?

In my opinion, it’s important to be aware of when somebody observes us because we often behave differently in front of our friends or family than in front of strangers. For example, you might make fun of yourself more when your friend watches you than when a stranger does . So being aware of the observer effect can help us understand how other people perceive us and relate better with each other.

Observer effects examples?

There are many obvious and subtle forms that the Observer effect takes on a daily basis:

The classic Hawthorne studies from 1956 showed that factory workers changed their behavior just by the knowledge that they were being observed. This included increased productivity and better quality of work.

Another example, is the Milgram experiment from 1961, where an authoritative figure induces people to do things they normally wouldn’t do just because they told them to. An example would be delivering electrical shocks to unseen victims .

The Zimbardo Experiment in 1971 reveals how we can become objects of study instead of subjects: people played with their assigned roles as guards and prisoners. The fact that this was a psychological « game » doesn’t change the observation effect: many normal human beings turned into somebody different just because somebody else thought so .

Why do people use it?

There are two main reasons why people use the Observer effect cognitive bias: 1) For the better, 2) for the worse. The first one is called surveillance, where authorities use this cognitive bias to observe people and increase security. They do this by setting up cameras everywhere (and spying on us through our smartphones). An example of that is Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq which was filled with hidden cameras that monitored prisoners.

The second reason is more scary: Somebody can use this bias to manipulate somebody else into doing something they don’t want to. An example would be political propaganda .

How do people use it?

There are many ways you can create an Observer effect:

Surveillance: setting up secret cameras throughout your house or your workplace where you. This way, you will activate the Observer effect in others.

Using somebody as an example: showing somebody to your children that they should behave a certain way just because you observed somebody else doing it. For example, showing them how their parents scream at each other every day . You can use this technique by creating posters, writing articles or books about specific situations where authority figures (like police officers) were observed doing something wrong. Then, look through newspapers and find real examples before sharing them with others .

Creating fear: Sometimes people want to induce fear. This is very effective because of the Observer effect. An example would be scaremongering, where politicians exaggerate facts and events of terrorist groups to cause paranoia among citizens of their country.

Creating uncertainty about the event: When we don’t know how something happened, we often create our own explanation. This speculation can be even more effective than the real events: people will come up with theories just because somebody observed it and they want to make sense of what’s going on. An example would be conspiracy theories .

How do we create this bias?

We usually use the Observer effect when we feel like there is a lack of control or power. We observe an authority figure (a cop, teacher or parent) and try to behave like they do in order to get their approval and avoid punishment .

An observer effect also happens when you’re in front of strangers; we change our tone of voice and body language because that person is judging us and making us nervous .

We also use the Observer effect when there are physical barriers between people. We can’t see what’s going on behind closed doors, therefore we make assumptions about it. This cognitive bias is used in movies or TV shows where actors are observed talking or doing things that other member of the audience couldn’t see without the camera.

What professions use this bias?

People who induce fear usually use this bias: police officers, politicians and anybody with power over others to cause paranoia. Also, teachers that use threats or intimidation over their students will try to look like they have everything under control by observing everybody around them . An example would be crossing your arms while giving a lecture, scanning your surroundings constantly for bad behavior among children.

How to avoid using this bias?

It can be very difficult to avoid this bias. All you have to do is realize that other people are judging your behavior, then observe yourself and think about how would you feel if somebody else did something similar to you . Recognizing the Observer effect will decrease its impact on you over time, but it takes a lot of mental effort and observation before it becomes a habit.

For example, when somebody gets mad at you for doing something wrong, don’t try to change their opinion by acting like them or trying to say sorry. It’s impossible for us to fake emotions, so they will know immediately that we’re just observing them . When someone asks us what we want for dinner and we answer that we don’t know, they will start observing us if we keep that attitude.

Observer effect conclusion.

To conclude, this bias is a human tendency to take power from other people by observing them and trying to emulate their behavior . It can be used in many ways: creating fear, uncertainty or instilling confidence. All you have to do is recognize it and try to avoid your own observer effect.

What is the Experimenter’s bias?

The experimenter’s bias is a cognitive bias that occurs when a researcher’s expectations cause them to unknowingly influence the subjects of an experiment .

In other words, it is a form of reactivity.

When running experiments on people , researchers may unintentionally introduce certain expectation which would effect the course of the research and result in invalid findings. This often results from giving the participants clues as to what you are looking for during the study.

Why this bias is dangerous?

This typically occurs with behavioural science studies, where being aware of being tested can cause people to change how they normal behave. This could result in a false positive, due to external factors rather than something actually having a real effect. False positives can lead to inaccurate conclusions.

Why do people use this bias?

It is human nature to look for patterns in the things we observe, even where no correlation actually exists. Scientists are not immune to this bias and may look at their results with a subjective eye. This can lead them to miss or ignore clear indications that there is no real effect present.

How do people use this bias?

This could be caused by the scientist introducing subtle changes in experimental design without knowing it themselves. For example, they may introduce something into their methodology which subtly suggests what they are looking for to the participants involved in the study, causing them give answers based on expected reactions rather than truthfulness. Other possibilities include altering how record data or selectively reporting certain results.

How can we create this bias?

This could happen in many ways, but the most common is when researchers know in advance what results they are looking for or which subjects take part. This means that they may inadvertently introduce an expectation without even knowing it. Another way to cause this would be to change things between experiments, such as how data is recorded, which information is gathered and so forth. It wouldn’t be uncommon for the scientist conducting the experiment to act differently towards different participants involved in different studies, unaware of their own changing behaviour.

How to avoid this bias?

To prevent experimenter’s bias , researchers must make sure not to introduce cues into their research about what kind of results they are expecting before the experiments begin. This could be done through blind methods, where the scientist doesn’t know what is being tested until it has been completed.

Experimenter’s bias examples?

In a study on eyewitness testimony , a subject was told that they would be seeing a video of a crime and then asked to identify the criminal from a lineup . When researchers also provided them with information on which person in the line-up seemed suspicious, the number of false positive identifications increased by over 200%. In another experiment, researchers found that students were more likely to solve maths problems when working under the impression that their results were going to be used as part of their course evaluation.

Which profession use bias?

Many professionals are subject to the experimenter’s bias, whether they realise it or not. Scientists often fall into this trap when they unintentionally provide clues as to what they are looking for. In addition, many professionals may allow their own personal biases affect their judgement, causing them to judge a situation incorrectly which could lead to false results being recorded and acted upon.

Experimenter’s bias conclusion.

In order to avoid this bias, scientists must remove the possibility of any expectation from their experiments by blinding themselves before conducting studies so that they do not know who is involved or what is tested until afterwards. By doing this, they can use a neutral approach and give everyone equal treatment during experiments so that no one has an advantage over another. This would mean that any prejudiced, subjective judgements are not brought into their work and should lead to more accurate conclusions being drawn.

What is the Observer-expectancy effect?

The observer-expectancy effect is a type of reactivity that occurs in scientific experiments or studies. This bias affects the way participants behave during an experiment, as they alter their behavior due to knowing what the expected result should be.

How does it work?

In many cases, researchers are not aware that the Observer-expectancy effect has occurred. In these situations, there can be unintentional cues given off by researchers which lead certain participants to answer questions falsely or behave in a particular way. If this happens, then the data gathered from the experiment will not accurately reflect what would have happened if there was no expectation and therefore cannot provide valid results. During an unbiased study, participants will behave as they normally would and give both expected and unexpected outcomes for their actions. When a study is affected by the Observer-expectancy effect, it will show more expected behaviors from the participants as they attempt to please the researchers.

Why this bias is dangerous?

When an experiment or study contains results that have been skewed due to the Observer-expectancy effect, then the data gathered may be incomplete or incorrect. The lack of validity in these results can lead to invalid conclusions being made based on them. For example, if a medical treatment shows good results during a biased test, then a clinician may recommend using it even though it was only effective because of the expectations set up by those controlling the experiment. This could result in patients receiving ineffective treatments and experiencing negative side effects, while a more effective method remains undiscovered because of the Observer-expectancy effect.

Why do people use this bias?

When an experiment is being set up, there may be many factors that can affect how it will turn out, such as current trends in medicine or what other researchers have found in similar studies. Researchers working on these experiments should keep their own beliefs and expectations out of their work, but they cannot always manage to do this. In some cases, the scientist carrying out the research knows what result would be most beneficial for them personally or which outcome they are hoping to find. This could mean that they subconsciously alter their methods during the experiment so that it provides these results instead of truly random data. When data is collected during such experiments, the Observer-expectancy effect occurs as those controlling it attempt to mold the results so that they match what they want them to be.

How do people use this bias?

The Observer-expectancy effect has been shown to affect those who are in professions that require objectivity and clear judgement. Researchers and scientists often fall into this category, but there have also been examples of research assistants or students being affected by this type of bias when carrying out their work. This can sometimes occur even if the individual doing the research genuinely wants an unbiased answer, as once a hypothesis is formed it can be difficult not to try to make your findings fit with your existing beliefs. In some cases, researchers may not be aware that they are causing this bias by unintentionally giving off cues to the participants or subtly altering their methods during experiments.

How can we create this bias?

For an experiment to be influenced by the Observer-expectancy effect, it must contain some sort of unexpected result which is known about in advance. When people become aware of these results ahead of time, they may subconsciously alter their actions during the experiment so that they match what was expected. This could mean using certain measuring techniques more often, asking certain questions or even cheating during a test so that a particular answer is reached. During studies where there is no expectation for a certain type of outcome, the Observer-expectancy effect cannot take place as any responses given will have been random and not affected by those carrying out the research.

How to avoid this bias?

Researchers and scientists should try to keep their personal beliefs and expectations out of their experiments through careful planning and anonymizing procedures. This can be done by ensuring that all participants in a study are unaware of what they are being tested for, as well as keeping any interaction with them limited during the experiment itself. If this is not possible, then researchers should make sure that they do not give off cues to condition participants into giving certain answers or performing specific actions during the test.

What profession use this bias?

The Observer-expectancy effect has been found to occur most often when performed by professionals who must remain objective to out their work properly, such as scientists and researchers. It can also occur in many other jobs, especially those where the individual’s judgment may be clouded by their personal beliefs or expectations. For example, police officers who are involved with interrogating suspects and doctors and nurses who must make quick diagnoses may sometimes fall victim to this bias.

Observer-expectancy effect examples:

An experiment has been carried out to test if a pharmaceutical drug is effective at reducing anxiety levels in patients. The results show that there were no signs of the drug having any effect, but when reviewed it emerges that one lab technician consistently recorded lower anxiety scores from participants who had been given the placebo tablet, while another did so for those with the real pill. This means both technicians subconsciously altered their measurements during the trial to produce expected results.

In another study, a group of medical students are asked to determine which eye a dead patient was blind in based on looking at a photograph of them. When they were reminded that all their decisions should be random and that the outcome had no bearing on whether or not they passed their course, they chose correctly in nearly all cases. However, when they were told that these decisions could affect whether they pass the exam or not, the students began to choose incorrectly far more often, demonstrating how this bias can take place even when people are aware of it.

Observer-expectancy effect conclusion.

The Observer-expectancy effect is a well documented form of bias in research and experimentation which can alter the results seen in studies if it is not accounted for. This occurs when researchers subconsciously change their methods to produce certain expected results, based on what they believe will be found in advance. It can take place when experiments are performed by professionals who need to remain impartial or when tests are carried out where there is no specific expectation for one type of response over another.

What is the Selective perception bias?

Selective perception, also known as confirmation bias and myside bias, is a psychological phenomenon in which people only notice the information that confirms their existing opinions. This effect has been called « biased blind spot » because people were found to acknowledge more numerous biases in others than in themselves.

Why this bias is dangerous?

The danger of selective perception is the risk of developing an inaccurate world view due to ignoring or misinterpreting new evidence. It can be costly if deploying decisions are based on false assumptions about opponents’ abilities. In fact, it can create conflicts between individuals and groups by deviating from reality.

Why do people use this bias?

People use selective perception to protect their self-esteem. They are motivated to feel good about themselves and are inclined towards defending their own ideas. For example, an individual who is a self-described liberal Democrat may fail to notice any wrong-doing by his or her party members. The person does this in order to sustain the desired positive view of being a true Democrat.

How do people use this bias?

People use this bias quite often at home. It can be seen when parents always think that their children are better behaved than other children. Even though they might not be doing anything bad, they still believe that it is normal for their kids to behave well.

Basically, it’s all about what you want/expect to see! Everyone has thought « I don’t know what I would do if the people I support lost » or « If my team wins it’s because they are better » at least once. It has nothing to do with what you like them to be, but with existing ideas about how things work (i.e., The world is a fair place)

How can we create this bias?

The selective perception bias can be created in many different ways. For example, during the 2016 US presidential race between Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton there were several debates held across the country for journalists and voters to ask questions. Trump supporters criticized the moderators of the match-ups for asking biased questions aimed mainly at Clinton; however, when debate moderators wanted to ask both candidates about big issues, Trump supporters viewed the questions as fair.

How to avoid this bias?

There are several steps that can be taken in order for an individual to reduce their chances of experiencing the selective perception bias. For example, they should ask themselves what caused them to make a judgment, whether or not there were any distortions involved, and if they knew the full story.

It’s very easy! People must understand that opinions isn’t facts. Everyone have different point of views and everyone have its own way to see things so even if you think « My team is better » it doesn’t mean your teammates thinks the same thing. The only way to know how others see things is by asking them and listening/reading their responses! If you understand and listen to other people’s opinions you will be able to create a better atmosphere where everyone feels respected and listened.

Selective perception bias examples?

One example of this kind of bias might be the 2016 US Presidential race between Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton. Trump supporters criticized the moderators for asking biased questions aimed mainly at Clinton; however, when debate moderators asked both candidates about big issues, Trump supporters viewed these questions as fair. Selective perception is also shown by men who feel that women are less competent than they actually are or that women receive undeserved advantages. For instance, men often overestimate how often other men show sexual interest in women and think that women try harder than they do to turn them on sexually (see illusory asymmetry).

Selective perception is seen amongst all the people, no matter what race or religion they are. For example, a leader can believe that his group is superior to another group without any type of rational argument. In fact, this phenomenon was studied in a classic research project conducted by Henri Tajfel. He gathered teenagers from various schools and separated them into groups based on something as arbitrary as their preference for abstract art over representational art. Then he had the participants make a series of judgments about other teens including rating how likely it would be for the teens to engage in certain behaviors such as engaging in a fight after school.

Which profession use the Selective perception bias?

The selective perception bias is used in different professions. For example, defense lawyers might think that their client is innocent because he/she doesn’t have a criminal history, which leads them to focus only on the evidence that supports this idea rather than considering all of the facts. Another profession where people can fall victim to this kind of bias are doctors who often view themselves as being better off financially and more productive than they are in actuality.

Selective perception bias conclusion.

Selective perception bias is a type of cognitive bias that leads people to perceive the world in a way that’s consistent with their beliefs. This means that people will ignore the parts of the story that are contrary to their point of view, while accentuating incriminating evidence against an opposing group or idea. As this phenomenon becomes increasingly widespread, it presents serious dangers not only for society but also for individuals who can develop tunnel vision about particular topics and issues which can lead them to behave in dangerous ways. Though there is no way to avoid making assumptions and generalizations, it is imperative that we become more open-minded and objective when assessing new evidence and information related to our personal views.

What is the Choice-support bias?

The choice-support bias is when you support your decision by taking recourse to one or more of your earlier choices.

It can be considered a form of confirmation bias wherein you try and find further evidence to support what you’ve already done in the past.

However, we do not consider it as a cognitive bias since most people use this all the time and don’t see it as such.

For example, after buying an expensive Louis Vuitton purse (and knowing that you paid too much for it), if someone asks for advice on where they can get a similar purse; instead of telling them about another designer’s high-quality product that costs half the price, you will probably recommend Louis Vuitton because that is what you have experience using.

Why this bias is dangerous?

The choice-support bias weakens your decision-making ability by limiting your frame of reference when making choices. It also perpetuates the purchase of products that are often inferior quality, at inflated prices.

People use the choice-support bias to support their decisions because they fear that change might result in even worse outcomes than currently experienced.

After all, imagine if you told someone about a cheaper alternative while knowing full well that it was not as good… you wouldn’t be able to sleep for months!

Why do people use this bias?

We tend to trust our own experiences more than anything else and will support them even if there is contrary evidence closer at hand. We feel compelled to defend our choices and decisions even if we don’t know why.

How do people use this bias?

There are several ways in which the choice-support bias can be used: as evidence to support a decision, as justification for why something should stay the same, as an excuse not to consider other possibilities.

How can we create this bias?

One way of creating the choice-support bias is by limiting your frame of reference and experiences. If you’ve only ever tried one kind of wine, then that’s what you will recommend when someone asks; even if they tell you about another type that they think is better! This happens regularly with technology – once we become familiarized with how good (or bad) certain products or services are, we are reluctant to move on to something new.

Which profession use the Choice-support bias?

This happens with salespeople, marketers, advertisers… pretty much anyone who wants to make money from selling their product or service! Professionals are particularly susceptible because they do not want to regret any decisions they made that could have had an effect on the life of another person.

How to avoid this bias?

There are several steps you can take to help reduce your reliance on the choice-support bias:

• Collect more information about all of your options before making a decision. Don’t limit yourself by only using one source, even if it’s first hand! Question everything and make sure that what you know is based on fact rather than personal experience.

• Allow yourself some time to think about what you’ve learnt; don’t make decisions immediately after first learning something new; that’s when biases like the support option come into play!

• Try not to confuse familiarity with quality. Just because you like or are used to something doesn’t mean that it’s the best option, try to consider all of your options with an open mind.

Which profession use this bias?

This happens with salespeople, marketers, advertisers… pretty much anyone who wants to make money from selling their product or service! Professionals are particularly susceptible because they do not want to regret any decisions they made that could have had an effect on the life of another person.

Examples of Choice-support?

• A man would rather buy a product that his friend recommends than a cheaper alternative that he knows nothing about.

• A woman would rather spend money on expensive hair care products that her hairdresser recommends, even though she doesn’t have any proof it works better!

Choice-support Conclusion:

The choice-support bias is a mental shortcut which causes us to use information or experiences from our own lives when making decisions in the present. In short, we tend to seek out and recommend options that reflect well on choices we have experienced in the past. This can sometimes lead to poor decision-making because much of what we know may not be true! People who want to make their customers happy often form a personal opinion before looking at all of the facts… this is a mistake that can have long-lasting consequences!

While this bias is human, it can be very dangerous if we make decisions as a result of it. Avoiding this as much as possible will ensure you make the right choices, even if they aren’t what you originally wanted to do!

What is the Post-purchase rationalization bias?

The Post-purchase rationalization bias is a cognitive bias that refers to a consumer’s tendency to retroactively ascribe positive attributes to a purchase option, despite initial contradictory thoughts.

Why this bias is dangerous?

It has been shown that people tend to show such biased thinking when asked questions about their beliefs and behaviors. This distorted thinking can influence the way we make important decisions in our lives and how we choose what product or service we should buy next. It also means that companies may need to revamp the way they present information about their products before people make purchases. For example, research has found that children often express similar preferences for sugary cereals over healthier options like bran flakes, after parents’ purchase decisions are made for them.

Why do people use this bias?

There are two kinds of consumers, in regards to the post-purchase rationalization bias:

1. There are those who cognitively engage in the process of self-justification when they buy something they may not necessarily need or want, with benefits that may not be true for everyone. They will also tend to downplay any negative feelings about what was bought after having made a purchase decision, which can sometimes lead consumers to make purchases that they later regret (like getting an expensive pair of designer jeans).

2. Then there are those who like to validate their choices by searching for information that would support their decisions and which ignore anything that might contradict it. The latter group will often find the information they’re looking for to « help them feel okay » about what they’ve bought, and will be more likely to repeat purchase decisions that may not always be fruitful.

The idea of justifying a decision made with incomplete data is nothing new; in fact, people learn from an early age that certain actions can bring social praise or condemnation. When we buy something, we tend to get confused between the emotional and logical parts of our brain and thus engage self-justification to protect our ego.

Why do people use this bias?

They use it because it can be very difficult to admit after making a purchase decision that we made the wrong choice. Some consumers will not want to go out and spend more money on another product so they’ll convince themselves that what they bought was actually good for them even though it wasn’t. Salespeople exploit this bias by waiting until just before the sale ends to show consumers information that might help them justify spending additional money on an upgraded version of the product, for example when someone is in the market for a digital camera and the salesperson says « If you buy right now, I can include an additional battery and a bag for free! »

Post-purchase rationalization is why people will continue to use products that clearly aren’t working out for them. Buying something expensive requires high amounts of self-control and reflection about whether or not it’s worth it. Once we’ve made that decision, we don’t want to admit we were wrong so we’ll justify our decisions by searching for information and memories that may support what we initially bought. We might even blame ourselves for any problems we see with the product because we simply must have done something wrong to cause it or make it worse than before.

How do people use this bias?

1) They use memories that are available to them.

2) They use stereotypes or typical examples of what they think should happen.

3) They use past experience rather than assessing the present situation based on its own merits.

4) Seek information from those who already share their point of view.

5) Responding to questions or suggestions in a way that will lead people to have more positive feelings toward us.

6) Have an example where you could apply this bias?

How can we create this bias?

Salespeople love using post-purchase rationalization by reminding customers who are on the verge of closing a sale that there is more they could get if they just spent a little bit more money now. This gets them thinking about what good things could happen if they just added one extra feature or upgraded their order.

How to avoid this bias?

To avoid this bias, you should always make purchasing decisions based on how it will affect your life rather than what is most convenient for you. Always search for information that proves or at least suggests that whatever product or service you are looking to buy isn’t the best choice for your needs. Try not to give into the impulse of making a purchase just because it’s something new and different. Ask yourself why someone else wouldn’t be better suited for it or if anyone has had bad experiences with the same item before.

Post-purchase rationalization conclusion.

People can use our own memories, stereotypes, past experiences, etc. to help justify their decision after they’ve made the initial one so it’s very important not to let mental shortcuts get in the way of making a good, long-term purchasing decision.

What is the Congruence bias?

The congruence bias is a cognitive bias where people will tend to test hypotheses exclusively through direct testing, rejecting any indirect or inferential tests.

Why this bias is dangerous?

This can prevent people from looking for alternative hypothesis that they may not have thought of otherwise.

Why do people use this bias?

People are more likely to look for evidence that supports their current beliefs. This is because it takes mental effort to shift through all possibilities and looking for evidence against your own theories means you need to expend extra effort in order to keep an open mind. People also prefer information which agrees with their pre-existing knowledge, as there is less new information given which needs processing than if contradicted previous thoughts. Looking at things from a different perspective is also difficult as it requires you to expend more mental effort if they have to completely rethink what they know.

How do people use this bias?

People may fail to seek out disconfirming evidence for their beliefs if the belief was not acquired through direct testing and instead acquired through hearsay, tradition or authority. The belief can be about anything such as politics, religion, conspiracy theories and many other topics.

How can we create this bias?

We can encourage this by encouraging ideas which agree with their pre-existing knowledge and giving little attention to ideas that disagree with them. People who are either at the extremes of the political spectrum (conservatives vs liberals) will be more likely to resort to using direct testing as a form of acquiring knowledge as they will already have more established views on political issues.

How to avoid this bias?

We can avoid this by seeking out disconfirming evidence for ideas we have, considering new points of view and being objective about new information so that it is not correlated with existing beliefs. If you are aware of the congruence bias, then you should be able to overcome it more easily than if you didn’t realise there was a cognitive bias. Divide complex problems into smaller parts which makes them easier to test. Avoid using heuristics when solving problems or thinking about anything in general as they may skew your reasoning, such as ‘People who aren’t from my country cannot be trusted’. Using heuristics like this may lead you to assume that someone is not from your country and therefore you will not bother testing this theory or even if you do, it won’t be counted because the heuristic prevented you from ever searching for evidence against it.

Congruence bias examples?

A study was conducted where students were asked to solve a puzzle which involved a line in the shape of a « T » touching three other lines forming three sides of a triangle. However, one side of the « T » did not touch the triangle at all, meaning there could have been many different solutions depending on which side was detached from the rest of the figure. The group who found their hypothesis confirmed were more likely to continue using direct approach tests when they came up with a hypothesis and only tested indirectly when they knew it would be accurate. This can also lead to avoidable medical errors being overlooked by doctors, potentially leading to the loss of life.

Doctors have been found to show this bias when diagnosing up to 40% of the time! If a doctor is confident in their diagnosis, they are more likely not to search for information which may contradict their thinking or that does not fit into what they know about an illness. For example, if a patient has come in for treatment of fever and you immediately think it’s malaria without testing for other less serious illnesses first then your biases will cause you miss out on performing tests which could help prevent unnecessary deaths.

Which profession use the Congruence bias?

Any profession can use this bias such as doctors, police officers, lawyers and politicians. Politics is particularly susceptible to the congruence bias due its inherent subjectivity and evidence which lacks objectivity. George W Bush’s administration was accused of using this bias in regards to the war on terror where they only sought out information that agreed with their pre-existing beliefs. Similarly, Donald Trump has been accused of subscribing to conspiracy theories such as that Obama wiretapped his phones during the general election without providing any solid evidence for it, other than simply stating that he believed it was true.

Congruence bias conclusion.

The congruence bias is when we seek out confirmation over disconfirmation an idea we have which comes from seeking out evidence that supports your beliefs and ignoring evidence which contradicts them. We do this because we know our preconceived ideas are more likely to be correct so it is much less risky to find the evidence that agrees with it rather than search for anything which might prove us wrong. It can lead to avoidable medical errors, where doctors don’t bother looking for information which may contradict their own hypothesis about a patient’s illness or overlook obvious solutions to problems when they have an already formed idea in mind. However, being aware of this cognitive bias should allow you to overcome it but if you are not aware then you are more likely to fall victim to it without even realising! Remember, just because something appears true doesn’t mean it is, always look for evidence to support your ideas and not just that which confirms it.

What is the Confirmation bias?

The Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, focus on and remember information in a way that confirms one’s preconceptions.

How does it work?

People feel good about their decisions or views then they search for pieces of information that support those choices. In other words confirmation bias suggests people ignore evidence that challenges their beliefs and selectively focus on facts that support them.

For example, if you have a belief that being out in nature reduces stress levels, you might look for evidence to confirm this view – such as noticing your symptoms improve when you go camping – while ignoring things which challenge your belief – such as noticing no effect from a day at the seaside.

Confirmation bias can affect all our beliefs – not just political ones.

Why do people use this bias?

The confirmation bias is used because it gives people a sense of satisfaction when they get the right answer, and so they seek out information which supports what they already think. They also see negative results as being due to unusual circumstances, but positive results as being more reliable in general.In addition, studies have shown that we tend to avoid evidence which contradicts our existing beliefs or the views of those we trust and respect. Meanwhile, familiar concepts are better remembered than unfamiliar ones – so if somebody’s view seems to accord with your own experience or background knowledge, you’re likely to give more weight to it.

Why is it dangerous?

As well as leading us towards wrong conclusions, the confirmation bias can cause problems. For example, the financial crash of 2008 was partly blamed on traders who were overconfident in their own abilities and spurned negative feedback, so they never questioned their own judgements.

How do people use this bias?

A study by Christopher Booker found that each year for three decades, about 90 percent of articles in « The Lancet » supported one side of the political divide in Britain – either Conservative or Labour. Yet only 10 percent had previously declared an allegiance to either party. A similar pattern was also seen in articles published by « Nature ».

Confirmation biases come about because some people are more susceptible than others to influence from their surroundings (which may include discussion with colleagues). So it’s likely that those who are overconfident in their own abilities, have an inflated sense of certainty or have a greater need for social approval will be more susceptible to confirmation bias.

How can we create this bias?

We might even try to edit our memories to make them fit with what we believe now – called ‘memory reconsolidation’. For example, if somebody has donated blood voluntarily, they may later remember the experience as being much less unpleasant than it actually was because remembering that would not fit with their current view that donating blood is wrong.

Which professions use the Confirmation bias?

It’s likely that anybody who holds strong views on political issues is susceptible to confirmation bias – especially those who receive lots of information from one particular source which supports their beliefs. For example, it’s possible that scientists are more likely to consider information which supports their existing beliefs about climate change.

How can we avoid this bias?

The best way to overcome confirmation biases is to examine the idea from as many different angles as possible – including views you don’t agree with. Try not to rely on just one source of information, and try wherever possible to consider the long-term consequences of your actions. Don’t write off challenging information too quickly.

Confirmation bias example:

There are many different examples of the confirmation bias, but some have more impact than others. For example, there is evidence that people with high self-esteem tend to overestimate how good they are at golf – even when their performance is low! Another study found that Lib Dems thought they were less extreme than Labour or Conservative supporters thought they were.

Confirmation bias conclusion:

The confirmation bias is a cognitive bias that leads us towards favoring information which supports our existing beliefs and rejecting information which contradicts them – even when we should know better! It’s likely that anybody who holds strong views on political issues is affected by confirmation biases – especially those who receive lots of information from one particular source which supports their beliefs.